Conceptual mapping of geography textbook content on the example

Volume 13, Issue 4, pp. 045 - 064

Article Info

Accepted: 05/07/2022

Corresponding Author: (*) petr.trahor[email protected]

DOI: https://doi.org/10.48088/ejg.p.tra.13.4.045.064

Conceptual mapping of geography textbook content on the

example of the desert biome

Petr Trahorsch

, Jan Daniel Bláha

, Kristýna Ryčlová

Jan Evangelista Purkyně

University in Ústí nad Labem,

Czechia

Keywords

Geography textbook,

textbook analysis,

desert,

conceptual mapping

Abstract

The aim of this study is to identify the key terms used by textbook authors when

presenting desert biomes and, subsequently, to visualise the relationships between them

using a conceptual map. To achieve this objective, we assessed geography textbooks

using conceptual maps, which can be used to conceptualise this topic. The method used

is innovative in textbook research and can be used to present results in a visual form

with added value. A total of eleven university students created conceptual maps for each

of the five analysed textbooks, and this was followed by a synthesis and comparison of

the created maps. The effectiveness and clarity of the analysed content is one of the

advantages of this visual form of analysis. The data were analysed qualitatively and

quantitatively. The results show that the presentation of desert biomes in the textbooks

we analysed is somewhat superficial, as the authors do not strive to interconnect

concepts from different areas, and their conceptual maps lack higher hierarchy levels.

Therefore, textbook authors should opt for a different conceptual approach to

explanatory texts instead of the traditional coverage of the individual components of

geographical environments.

Highlights:

- The structures of Czech geographical textbooks are based on outmoded content-based approaches

-The text in textbooks shows little potential for the development of systems thinking

-In some cases, textbooks contain stereotyping cases of curriculum presentation

-Text don't connect concepts from different fields, their concept maps have a low hierarchical level

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative

Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CCBY-SA-4.0). View this

license’s legal deed at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0

and legal code at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-

sa/4.0/legalcode for more information.

The publication of the European Journal of Geography (EJG) (http://eurogeojournal.eu/) is based on the European Association of Geographers’ goal to make European

Geography a worldwide reference and standard. Thus, the scope of the EJG is to publish original and innovative papers that will substantially improve, in a theoretical,

conceptual or empirical way the quality of research, learning, teaching and applying geography, as well as in promoting the significance of geography as a discipline.

Submissions are encouraged to have a European dimension. The European Journal of Geography is a peer-reviewed open access journal and is published quarterly.

Regular Issue

published quarterly

Editor: Dr Panos Manetos,

[email protected]

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 46

1. INTRODUCTION

The concept of geography education has changed significantly over the last few years. A

departure from presentation of factographic syllabi (such as Marada et al., 2017; NCGE, 2012,

etc.) is becoming apparent in the curricular documents of some countries, and greater

emphasis is placed on relationships and context in space and time, as well as the mutual

interaction between the natural and socio-economic spheres. Furthermore, curriculum content

focuses on key (geographic) concepts (Maude, 2020). Instead of acquiring the knowledge of

specific factographic data, students are expected to understand and interpret these data

correctly and seek the causes and consequences of natural and socio-economic phenomena

and processes. These changes in the approach to geographic education are necessarily

reflected in the didactic aids used in geography learning and teaching and, by extension, in

geography textbooks, as these are the most commonly used didactic aids, which users see

as key prerequisites for teaching geography (Esteves, 2019).

Although research on geography textbooks is currently rather sparse, one of its major

drawbacks is its non-innovative framing (Kidman & Papadimitriou, 2012; Bagoly-Simó, 2019).

Some authors point to the insufficient theoretical volume of this area of research. The non-

innovative use of textbook research is another problem (Bagoly-Simó, 2018; Bock, 2018). The

current specialised research of textbooks places emphasis, among other aspects, on the

analysis of textbooks in relation to the objectives of the specific study, with the authors

examining the historical or socio-cultural context of the selected subject matter (Jennings,

2006; Sidorov, 2009; Cain, 2015; and others). The problematic implementation of the research

findings and conclusions in textbook revisions is a further major shortcoming of specialised

didactic research (compare with Lee & Catling, 2017). Textbook research currently does not

reflect new pedagogical or psychological directions in education (such as constructivism,

conceptual change issues, system thinking, etc. —see, for example: Vosniadou, 2013;

Reinfried et al., 2015, Cox, 2018). The introduction of major innovations in textbook production

cannot be expected if the concept of textbook research remains rigid (compare Kučerová,

Kučera, & Novotná, 2018).

Pedagogical constructivism is one of the trends that has gained in strength in geographic

learning and teaching over the last few years (Driver, 198; Lane, 2008; Reinfried et al., 2015).

Unlike the traditional concept, this method of teaching places emphasis on students’ activity

in the educational process, the presentation of specific curricula, and the relationships

between key concepts in curriculum content (Lane, Carter, & Bourke, 2019). Constructivism

in tuition strives to build on students’ previous knowledge and experience and to confront

students with the latest, albeit didactically restructured, scientific knowledge (Fosnot, 2013).

Studies have shown that teaching based on constructivism is more effective, as students are

able to master curriculum content more effectively and permanently, successfully apply the

knowledge gained, and seek relationships and connections between individual curriculum

topics. Moreover, students enjoy this type of learning much more (Pine, Messer, & St. John,

2001; Reinfried, 2006). Unfortunately, specialised research has so far failed to address

whether textbooks apply constructivist approaches to tuition. Over the last few years, attention

has been paid mainly to the assessment of actual tuition through observation and video

studies, including questionnaires or didactic tests (e.g., Reinfried et al., 2015; Lorenz, Roth, &

Priese, 2017). Geography education can be viewed as a single, coherent subject, including

didactic aids (comp. Bagoly-Simó, 2013; Lorenz, Roth, & Priese, 2017; Trahorsch & Bláha,

2019). This is why the presentation of topics in textbooks in connection with the current

psychodidactic aspects of geography education, not only with regard to the current historical

and sociocultural context of textbook content, also needs to be studied.

Research using conceptual mapping is an effective approach to the examination of the

relationships between phenomena. This method is very often used to identify the structure of

the knowledge of a specific respondent through research projects based on the theoretical

grounds referred to above (e,g. pedagogical constructivism; Novak & Gowin, 1984). Typically,

the aim of the research is to identify children’s conception of the relevant phenomenon; in

other words, how the individual student perceives, understands, and interprets the relevant

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 47

phenomenon (Wandersee, 1990; Wehry et al., 2012); in geographical education, this method

is used as a tool to measure or develop systems thinking (Cox, Elen, & Steegen, 2019).

Systems thinking defined Arnold and Wade (2015, p. 675) as a set of synergetic, analytical

skills used to improve the capability of identifying and understanding systems, predicting their

behavior, and devising modifications to them in order to produce desired effects. The

conceptual mapping method commonly supplements an interview with the respondents,

helping to identify the relationships and connections between key terms used by the individual

to define and specify the studied phenomenon and visualise these relationships in a mental

model (Doulík & Škoda, 2008). This method is applied in the analysis of textbook content

rather sporadically (compare Soyibo, 1995; Wu, Lee, & Lai, 2004). The application of

conceptual mapping in the research on or assessment of geography textbooks can provide

rather different outcomes compared to the conventional content analysis of texts (for example,

the connections between the individual components of the geographical environment).

Therefore, we propose the following research question: What concepts do textbook authors

choose for the presentation of phenomena, and which relationships and connections do these

concepts reveal? The desert biome is the phenomenon we will use in order to answer this

research question. This phenomenon was selected due to (1) the potential complexity of

presentation of the desert biome in textbooks; (2) the background provided in previous studies

examining children’s conception of the desert and the consequent options for comparing

textbook content with students’ actual conception of deserts; (3) the integration of this topic in

the curriculum content in different parts of the world.

The aims of this study are to analyse the content of chapters dealing with the topic of

deserts in geography textbooks for lower secondary education and to identify the structure of

and relationships between key terms selected by textbook authors for the presentation of the

relevant topic. The achievement of this objective may provide information on how textbook

authors reflect on the current state of knowledge in specialised didactic research, and whether

they place sufficient emphasis on relationships and connections between key terms in their

textbooks.

2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

2.1 Theoretical basis for conceptual mapping of the content of geography

textbooks

This study is based on the theoretical framework of the curriculum (including textbooks) in

systems theory in (geography) education and the theory of conceptual change. These theories

support the relevance of the application of the conceptual mapping method to the analysis of

textbooks and, especially, to the educational and scientific consequences of the data obtained.

The study uses the term ’key term’ for first-order concepts (such as groundwater,

temperatures, camels etc.). ’Key term’ is used for this group of concepts to avoid confusion

with other categories (see below). Conversely, the term ’key concept’ (or ’big idea’) normally

refers to (abstract) second-order concepts (such as place / space, scale, system etc.). The

study does not explicitly work with these terms, but based on our results, it is possible to

deduce some outputs in relation to key concepts (e.g., the presentation of the environment).

Nevertheless, it is necessary to define these key concepts, as their clear definition provides a

framework for modern geographical education. Fögele (2016) defines key concepts as

structured and interconnected ideas, theories, and explanatory models that emerge from the

structure of a subject to describe basic subject-specific processes and phenomena. Key

concepts should be at the top of the hierarchy, abstract, sufficiently general, and applicable to

the various thematic areas of geography (Maude, 2020). They should be applied in the

creation and revision of curricula, and, therefore, textbooks. Otherwise, conventional and rigid

curricula may emerge, and science may become separated from primary education. Taylor

(2008) and Fögele (2016) provide an overview of key geographical concepts by various

authors. The Czech curriculum, on which this study is based, defines six key concepts

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 48

(Marada et al., 2017), place and region, location, development, interactions, scale, and

distribution, as well as their interrelationships.

In the literature, there are several references to the concept of powerful knowledge. The

author of this concept is M. Young (2009), a sociologist of education. The term refers to field-

specific knowledge, which is the basis for understanding the content of a field, which students

do not acquire at home, at work, or at school, but through a degree of acquired experience

(Roberts, 2014). This knowledge equips students with orientation in their field, helping them

to design cognitive procedures, consider logical alternatives, etc. (Maude, 2019). In Young's

study, he refers to the work of Vygotsky (1962), who described the notion of the development

of spontaneous and scientific concepts. Although both Young and Vygotsky address different

concepts in education, Vygotsky focuses on the development of mental models, while Young

focuses on how knowledge of the curriculum can be theorized (Roberts, 2014). Both

approaches are applied in this study, as the conceptual mapping of textbook content

determines, to some extent, the structure of concepts in the curriculum (textbook), while, on

the other hand, it has the potential to reveal the structure in which the presented concepts are

learned by students.

In addition to the issues of key concepts in geography and powerful knowledge, conceptual

mapping is based on the theory of systems thinking. It refers to the cognitive ability to think in

context, to construct causal diagrams, and to relate individual concepts (Cox, Elen, & Steegen,

2019). Because conceptual mapping places different concepts in context and creates a

coherent whole from them, it supports systems thinking (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2017). The

systems concept of geographical thinking is also reflected in other concepts, such as system

competence (Rempfler & Uphues, 2012) or geospatial thinking (Favier & van der Schee,

2014). The presentation of concepts through a conceptual map can provide information on

which system is chosen for the presentation of a given curriculum. Moreover, the results of

conceptual mapping can, to some extent, measure the level of support for systems thinking,

as conceptual maps are very often used in the development of this cognitive skill (Cox, Elen,

& Steegen, 2019). It should be added that since systems thinking supports the understanding

of basic geographical concepts, even the appropriate presentation of the results of conceptual

mapping can identify a certain system of strengths and weaknesses in the presentation of a

curriculum. Cox’s study (2018), which primarily focuses on the concepts involved in teaching

geography and the teaching methods used, including the application of conceptual mapping,

shows that one of the factors in the development of systems thinking is curriculum content.

In contrast to the above theories, the theory of conceptual change is focused directly on

the student. This theory emphasises the gradual transformation of children's concepts and

misconceptions in the desired direction, i.e., it eliminates misconceptions and brings thinking

closer to current scientific knowledge (Vosniadou, 2013). Conceptual mapping very often

actively used in research, as it has the potential to identify the structures of partial terms

(Doulík & Škoda, 2008; Strommen, 1995; Rey-Goyeneche & Alexander, 2021). However,

even textbooks can cause misconceptions due to the stereotyping of content, excessive

generalisation (Testa, Leccia, & Puddu, 2014), professional errors in the text (King, 2010), and

graphical representations (Trahorsch, 2022). The conceptual mapping of textbook content can

thus identify potential sources of misconceptions and ground teaching preparation based on

constructivism and internal cognitive conflict, which eliminates the emergence, development,

and number of misconceptions based on empirical evidence (Limón, 2001; Smith, diSessa, &

Roschelle, 1993). Textbooks that use constructivism as a source of knowledge can encourage

students to develop more accurate ideas about geographical phenomena, although it is

necessary for the content of textbooks to be in line with current trends in geographical

education and scientific knowledge.

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 49

2.2 Current state of knowledge, with a focus on misconceptions about and

textbook research on deserts

As the conceptual mapping method is applied to the desert biome in this study, which is based

on the theoretical background to the development of children’s conceptions and

misconceptions, it is essential to describe the current state of knowledge in the research ion

the perception of deserts by lower-secondary-school students and the research on biomes in

textbooks. Lower-secondary-school pupils understand deserts as vast, dry, and hot areas

covered by sand (Dove, 1999; Schubert, 2014; Schubert & Wrenger, 2016). Students do not

take into account different top layers in deserts (stone, gravel) or various types of deserts in

different climatic zones (such as polar deserts). They mostly locate deserts in Africa (Schubert,

2014). They see wind as the main geomorphological factor, as it shifts sand and contributes

to the creation of deserts, along with ocean activity (Schubert & Wrenger, 2016). Camels and

cactuses are seen as the typical biota of deserts, although students are unable to place them

in the correct region (Trahorsch & Trhlíková, 2021). Desertification as a key problem

associated with deserts is linked to natural and anthropogenic factors; pupils overestimate

natural factors over anthropogenic ones (Schubert, 2015). Although the authors of the studies

conducted so far associate these outcomes with, for example, the content of didactic aids

(e.g., photographs in textbooks), these misconceptions are primarily linked to students’

excessive generalisation of their own experience and information from the media (see also

Rye, 2013).

The research on biomes in textbooks is sporadic in focus. Behnke (2016) examined the

design of textbooks in relation to student learning, using the example of biomes. Textbook

design (the arrangement of text, visuals, and other elements of textbook content) appears to

be a crucial factor for effective learning. Trahorsch and Trhlíková (2021) analysed the content

of geography textbooks with a focus on biomes, monitoring which topics were presented by

textbook authors and which were not. According to this analysis, the authors of geography

textbooks primarily focus on physical and geographical phenomena, while socio-geographical

phenomena are presented sporadically. Furthermore, traditional interpretations of the

curriculum predominate. Maude and Caldis (2019) evaluated textbooks in relation to powerful

knowledge and the proposed structure of a biomass lesson; the authors state that to a

relatively minor extent, the textbooks support the systemic concept of geography and are

considerably reserved about the presentation of powerful knowledge. Other, non-specific,

studies point out that the physical-geographical content of textbooks in particular may be the

cause of pupils' perceptions. For example, King (2010) draws attention to a number of

simplistic claims regarding the geological composition of particular regions and the extraction

of minerals; furthermore, Bozkurt (2019) draws attention to the proliferation of a simplistic

concept of climate change, which also affects the desert. Thus, in general, textbooks are a

possible source of misconceptions and, currently, do not allow a fundamental increase in the

effectiveness of students' learning.

3. METHODOLOGY

This study can be classified under the analysis of curriculum content, specifically under

textbook analysis (Okeeffe, 2013). The study aims to identify the key terms selected by

textbook authors for the presentation of the desert biome and subsequently use conceptual

maps to visualise the relationships between them. The outcomes are interpreted through a

comparison between the conceptual maps of individual textbooks and a synthesis of the

resulting data.

3.1 Research sample

The research sample consisted of five Czech geography textbooks for lower secondary

schools (for students aged approximately 11–12 years—see table 1), which are in print at the

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 50

time of writing. All the textbooks were approved by the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth

and Sports for use in lower secondary schools, as this is one of the main prerequisites for their

use in Czech schools. The criteria for selecting the textbooks were, in addition to the award of

the Clause, topicality (the age of the textbook at the time of evaluation up to 10 years from

publication), and their active use in the teaching of geography in the Czech Republic. Another

criterion was the thematic focus of the textbook on physical geography, as the topic of deserts

is taught in the Czech curriculum within this unit. Each of the evaluated textbooks had to be

published by a different publisher, and, therefore, the authors of each title had to be different.

Attention was only paid to the respective chapters dealing with the desert biome in the selected

textbooks.

Table 1. Overview of the analysed textbooks and specification of the analysed chapters

Textbook

identification

in the text

Publisher

Textbook quotation and

chapters

Number of

words in

chapter

Number of

sentences

in chapter

Textbook A

Fraus

Červený et al. (2013, pp. 60–61)

379

Textbook B

Nakladatelství ČGS

Červinka & Tampír (2015, pp.

78–79)

351

Textbook C

Nová škola

Chalupa & Cimala (2017, p. 101

155

Textbook D

Prodos

Demek & Voženílek (2019, p.

93)

109

Textbook E

Státní pedagogické

nakladatelství

Demek et al. (2019, pp. 76–77)

411

A total of 11 assessors were asked to create a conceptual map for each of the five textbooks

for the analysis of their text. The assessors were pre-service geography teachers, who were

trained according to the guidelines listed in the next section of this chapter. This choice can

be explained by the specialized qualifications of assessors in their field, including the future

use of textbooks.

3.2 Principles and process of text analysis

The method of conceptual mapping was used for the analysis of textbooks. Conceptual

mapping is a method involving identification of the structure of knowledge in selected

individuals (Novak & Gowin, 1984). The concepts (terms), mostly indicated in a conceptual

map in a bubble or a rectangle, are the basic elements of conceptual maps; these concepts

are connected by a link that shows the relationship between them (Rebich & Gautier, 2005;

West et al., 2000). Conceptual maps can also be seen as instruments for analysing the content

of communication (compare with Freeman & Jessup, 2004). This method can be used to

identify the structure of key terms in text communication. The content-analysis method does

not focus on specific individuals (research subjects);; instead, it is used to study different

communications, such as text or its analysis through didactic aids (Sidorov, 2009; Bagoly-

Simó, 2013; Kučerová, Kučera, & Novotná, 2018). Conceptual mapping can therefore be

applied with success to the analysis of the use of terms in textbooks or in selected parts of

textbooks. Unlike conventional text analysis, conceptual mapping can identify effectively and

then visualise key terms from textbooks that structure their chapters and make them

comprehensible. Moreover, the outcomes of textbook analysis using conceptual mapping can

inform us as to how the authorities in a given field, i.e., textbook authors, view the relevant

topics (Lee & Catling, 2017).

The process of conceptual-map creation presented below was based on the analysis of the

selected texts and any visuals they included, as well as the structuring of the texts into

subchapters and paragraphs (see below). In the analysis of the selected texts, which was the

basis of the conceptual map creation, assessors strived to identify the key terms (first-order

concepts; see chapter 2.1) important for structuring of the chapter and understanding the

meaning of the message conveyed in the presentation text. Attention was also paid to

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 51

relationships in which the key terms were arranged by the authors of individual textbooks. The

analysis did not take into account any study tasks, marginals, additional text, or titles provided

for visuals, as these parts of textbooks are not essential for structuring of the main message

conveyed in chapters; the content of the visuals was analysed in a quantitative analysis,

because the methodology used in this study encourages this approach (e.g. D’Antoni, Zipp

and Olson, 2009). The assessors were instructed to be as specific as possible when creating

the conceptual maps, i.e., to state specific terms (such as specific examples of phenomena

and processes) they identified directly in the text when creating their maps.

When creating concept maps, the evaluators were invited to focus on the content of the

textbooks rather than their own ideas. The aim was ensure that the conceptual maps from

individual assessors were as similar as possible in order to facilitate the interpretation of the

data obtained and specify the curriculum structure; in addition, this measure was also applied

to increase the objectiveness of the analysis.

Prior to beginning their analysis, the assessors were informed about the process of

analysis, its meaning ,and the theoretical background of conceptual mapping. Each of the

assessors received the key principles of analysis listed in this part of the study before

analysing the texts and creating the conceptual maps for each of the five textbooks. Each of

the assessors created their conceptual map independently, without cooperating with other

assessors. The inclusion of a relatively high number of assessors was intended to reduce

subjective nature of conceptual-map creation from the relevant textbook and increase the

objectiveness of the analysis; for example, assessors may have interpreted the text in the

textbooks differently from their colleagues and, thus, they may have identified different key

terms or different relationships between them.

Text analysis and conceptual-map creation consisted of several stages. In the first stage,

the assessors read entire chapters and gained insights into the structure of the text (primary

analysis of the chapter text). In the second stage, the conceptual maps were gradually created,

i.e., the key terms and the relationships between them were identified and then plotted in the

conceptual map. The third stage involved potential revisions of the created conceptual maps

or their clarification (a revision analysis of the chapter text). The aim of this procedure was to

eliminate the creation of accidental connections between the key terms and to prompt self-

reflection of the analysis from the assessors (see figure 1).

Figure 1. Diagram of the analysis of presentation text in textbooks

3.3 Processing the obtained data

After the conceptual maps were received from all 11 assessors, synthesis of the conceptual

maps for each of the textbooks followed. This synthesis was performed by two cooperating

assessors, who discussed every connection and verified it in the textbooks. Their activity

resulted in the creation of five aggregated conceptual maps (one conceptual map for each of

the textbooks). These aggregations are net structures of conceptual maps from the point of

view of conceptual-map typology, as this type has the potential to visualise the relationships

between key terms much more clearly than other types of conceptual map, such as chain-

structure or spoken-structure conceptual maps (Kinchin & Hay, 2000).

Reading the

whole chapter

in the textbook

Identification of

key terms

Incorporation

of key terms

into the first

version of

conceptual map

Revision of the

conceptual map

and its final

form

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 52

The analysis of the aggregated conceptual maps was conducted on qualitative and

quantitative levels. In addition to the specialised geographic aspects of concepts in conceptual

maps, the qualitative analysis also studied identical and differing elements of the conceptual

maps across the analysed textbooks. The aims of the qualitative analysis were to identify the

prevailing presentation of desert biomes in textbooks and to identify specific positive and

negative aspects of the presentation of this topic.

The methodology for the quantitative analysis was adopted and modified from the studies

by D’Antoni, Zipp, and Olson (2009) and West et al. (2002). When analysing conceptual maps,

these authors assigned scores for the following criteria: concept link (two points), cross link

(ten points), hierarchy (five points), example (one point), invalid or erroneous content (zero

points), image (five points), and colour (five points). As this study focused on the analysis of

the text in textbooks rather than conceptual maps devised by students, not all of the categories

listed above could be applied (for example, colours could not be evaluated, as they were not

apparent from the presentation text).

The following scoring system was therefore applied:

• Concept links: Two points were assigned for each link between identified concepts;

• Crosslinks: Ten points were assigned for each link demonstrating relationships

between various geographical components (such as the relationship between the

climatic zone and economic activities in the region);

• Hierarchies: Five points were assigned for each level of the conceptual map;

• Examples: One point was assigned for each example provided;

• Visuals: Five points were assigned for each concept that included a visual.

This scoring system is based on the level of elaboration of the concepts within a specific

phenomenon, which, in this case, was deserts. The final number, indicating the overall score

of a specific conceptual map, was the outcome of the data processed in this manner. A higher

score indicated a higher level of elaboration of the monitored phenomenon and, therefore, a

higher level of complexity of the relevant conceptual map. The quantitative analysis only

supplemented the qualitative analysis of conceptual maps and was used to compare the level

of complexity of the presentation of deserts across individual textbooks; the combination of

both approaches can help to obtain more valid research outcomes (Freeman & Jessup, 2004).

4. RESULTS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION

4.1 Results of qualitative analysis of conceptual maps

Figures 2–6 show synthesised conceptual maps from the analysed geography textbooks and

Table 2 provides an overview of the key results arising from the analysis presented in this part

of the chapter. The figures show that the authors whose textbooks we studied mainly opt for

the content-based approach to the presentation of the curriculum when presenting the desert

biome (focusing on individual components of the geographical environment). While this

structure does not interfere with the traditional arrangement of the text, it may complicate

students’ understanding of the relationships and connections between individual components

of the geographical environment to a certain extent. Geography therefore loses its complexity,

which is one of its key characteristics.

The analysis showed that the issues associated with deserts are not presented in the

textbooks with their causes and consequences. In other words, a problem-based approach is

absent from the texts; the chapter content focuses primarily on the description of the current

state and, sometimes, on its assessment, but the pursuit of problems in the relevant field (such

as desertification) is never the focus.

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 53

Figure 2: Conceptual map of the topic of desert in Textbook A (Fraus)

Figure 3: Conceptual map of the topic of desert in Textbook B (Nakladatelství ČGS)

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 54

Figure 4: Conceptual map of the topic of desert in Textbook C (Nová škola)

Figure 5: Conceptual map of the topic of desert in Textbook D (Prodos)

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 55

Figure 6: Conceptual map of the topic of desert in Textbook E (Státní pedagogické nakladatelství)

The presented conceptual maps show that all the textbook publishers build the chapters

on deserts on three basic concepts: climatic zone, with an emphasis on minimal rainfall (or

temperature differences between day and night); lack of water (in contrast to the occurrence

of oases); and the specific nature of the biota, with examples. These three core topics illustrate

the desert biome, according to the authors. The authors frequently use examples of plants

and animals to illustrate the specificity of deserts; camels and cactuses are mentioned very

often without any spatial context, i.e., in which region of the world they appear. This is

associated with the lacking of descriptions of the impact of latitudinal and longitudinal zones

on the locations of deserts. By omitting this, the authors eliminate the opportunity to present

additional types of deserts (polar deserts, temperate deserts, etc.).

It is interesting to note that a part of the analysed textbooks focuses unilaterally on physical

and geographical aspects of the geographic environment when presenting deserts and fails

to take into account their socio-economic content. This text structure eliminates one of the key

specifics of geography – the study of the relationships between nature and the society. This

outcome suggests that textbook authors tend to build on the traditional conception of teaching

biomes, in which the presentation of social activities is eliminated. However, identifying the

relationships between nature and society is currently important, as biomes, including deserts,

are intensively used and changed by human beings. On the other hand, the natural

environment influences the character of society and its activities. If human activities are

mentioned in the textbooks, they mainly include traditional economic activities (such as

grazing), and never modern economic uses (such as oil mining, or tourism). It is important to

note that while this information is not incorrect, it reinforces outmoded stereotypes, since these

areas now feature much wider economic activity. This phenomenon is referred to below as

stereotyping through examples. An overview of the problems identified through the conceptual

maps of the analysed textbooks is shown in Table 2.

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 56

Table 2. Overview of problems in the presentation text concerning deserts in geography textbooks

Identified

problem

Textbook A

Textbook B

Textbook C

Textbook D

Textbook E

Poor

representation of

the social content

of the area

(influence of the

environment on

humans)

NO (relatively

poor,

stereotyping but

effort to show

interconnection)

YES (missing

entirely)

YES (missing

entirely)

YES (missing

entirely)

NO (however,

people listed as

biome

components,

stereotyping

approach)

Absence of

classification

under deserts

and semideserts

YES (but stated

differently)

(identification

of the desert

expansion

problem needs

to be assessed

positively)

Distinction

between hot and

polar deserts

absent

YES (cool and

hot deserts

distinguished)

YES

YES (missing

entirely)

Absence of

different surface

covers in deserts

(type)

NO (certain

types are

missing or are

identified

inaccurately)

NO (certain

types are

missing or are

identified

inaccurately)

NO (however,

only sand

and stone

listed)

NO (certain

types are

missing or are

identified

inaccurately)

NO (certain

types are

missing or are

identified

inaccurately)

Conventional

content-based

approach

YES (waters,

wind climate,

plants and

animals)

YES (waters,

climate, plants

and animals)

YES (climate,

plants,

animals)

YES (difficult

to identify due

to small

volume of

information)

YES (waters,

wind – climate

and surface,

plants,

animals)

Absence of the

effect of

latitudinal zone /

location

YES (missing

entirely)

NO (insufficient,

subtropical

zones)

(insufficient,

tropics + 1

exception)

(insufficient,

tropics, low

rainfall)

YES (missing

entirely)

Stereotyping

through examples

YES (nomads, a

few biota

examples)

NO (several

different

examples

provided)

YES (inland

Asia +

tropics, but

many

examples

provided

under biota)

YES (Sahara –

Africa, sand)

YES (nomads,

a few biota

examples)

4.2 Results of quantitative analysis of conceptual maps

The interconnection of individual concepts is evidently weak in the textbooks studied. The

authors mostly present each part of the geographical environment separately, without any

effort to include the relationships between the individual components of the geographical

environment (also see Table 2). The cross-links category (see Table 3) was only identified

once. This result may indicate the continued prevalence of the traditional, content-based

concept of geographical education in the Czechia; textbook publishers, their authors, and

geography teachers use a relatively rigid concept of teaching geography in components, with

minimal emphasis on the relationships and connections between them, which is reflected in

the content of textbooks.

The quantitative analysis of the conceptual maps shows major differences between

individual textbooks (Table 3). The total number of points depends strongly on the scope of

the chapter, and this factor needs to be taken into account when interpreting the results.

Textbook A presents deserts with the highest level of elaboration, while the lowest level of

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 57

elaboration was identified in Textbook D. When the results of the quantitative analysis are

interpreted in light of the concepts in the chapters, it becomes evident that Textbook A places

greater emphasis on relationships and connections in space, time, and individual components

of the geographical environment than the other textbooks (for example, the textbook by Nová

škola is structured by subchapters according to the geographical environment). However,

minimal crosslinks were identified in the entire research sample. Significant variability was

also identified in the number of visuals and examples provided in the textbooks (for example,

significant differences were observed between the textbooks by publishers B and D).

Table 3. Results of quantitative analysis of conceptual maps

Textbook A

Textbook B

Textbook C

Textbook D

Textbook E

Summary

results for all

textbooks

(average)

Concept-links

118

38.6

75.2

Cross-links

0.2

2.0

Hierarchies

4.0

20.0

Examples

7.4

Visuals

5.8

29.0

TOTAL

191

183

120

123

134.8

5. DISCUSSION

The results of the analysis showed that the presentation of the selected biome is relatively

rigid in Czech textbooks, which are based on stereotyping and do not interleave individual

geographical components. The textbooks mostly limit their presentation to subtropical deserts

and omit other types of desert (including the polar type), with one exception, identified in

Textbook B. Students may therefore be under the impression that only one type of desert

exists; students cannot differentiate between individual types of desert according to climatic

zones based on the presentation of the curriculum in these textbooks. The connection

between plants and animals and the desert areas in which they live can be seen as a major

negative aspect. For example, although a student will be aware from the textbook that camels

are typical examples of animal living in deserts, or that cactuses are typical desert plants, they

will not be able to identify the region in which the animal or plant can be found. This may lead

to stereotyping in the curriculum (often stereotyping through examples), based on excessive

generalisation. This also leads to the occurrence of misconceptions, i.e., inaccurate

perceptions of the living environments of certain types of plants and animals (see also

Francek, 2013; Dove, 1999; Dove, 2016; Strommen, 1995; Rey-Goyeneche & Alexander,

2021; Trahorsch & Trhlíková, 2021).

As mentioned previously, the structures of the chapters in the analysed textbooks mostly

support the content-based approach to presenting the curriculum. Students are unable to seek

relationships and connections between individual components of geographical environments

independently. This defect is also apparent in the conceptual maps created in this study.

Students may de facto lack a didactic aid that would support their ability to seek relationships

between the components of geographical environments. Any changes to the structures of

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 58

these chapters should be based on changes to the concept applied to the presentation of the

curriculum concerning biomes, rather than minor changes in the wording of the text; however,

these changes may be obstructed by several problems, such as insufficient knowledge on the

part of the authors, unsuitable choices of examples, etc. (Lee & Catling, 2017).

The content and selection of the key terms used in the textbooks we analysed cannot be

considered suitable in view of the creation of children’s conceptions. As mentioned previously,

these chapters very often present traditional economic uses of geographical areas without

paying attention to current economic issues. Examples of the modern uses of deserts should

be supported by specific data, and sufficiently varied examples of phenomena and processes

should be used when presenting examples.

The results show that the structures of the chapters in Czech geography textbooks have

the potential to negatively influence children’s conceptions because the textbooks’ authors

practically omit any application of modern psychodidactic knowledge (for example, the topic

of cognitive conflict or constructivism—Vosniadou, 2013) from these structures. Specifically,

we are of the opinion that the authors of the chapters do not make use of students’ prior

knowledge of and experiences with deserts, which display identical characteristics, according

to specialised studies (for example Dove, 1999; Schubert, 2014; Schubert & Wrenger, 2016;

Trahorsch & Trhlíková, 2021). The textbooks’ authors are therefore unable to generate

cognitive conflict in students, which is highly effective for changing children’s conceptions

(Reinfried et al., 2015). The increased use of abstract types of visuals to differentiate desert

biomes around the world (such as climographs), maps of different desert types with regard to

surfaces or zones (stone, sand, gravel, polar, moderate desert, etc.), charts showing the

causes of the prevailing climate, diagrams illustrating water drainage for a more effective

presentation of areas such as wadi, etc., would be appropriate. The current textbooks only

include abstract descriptions of geographical conditions, which may be interpreted by students

inaccurately.

The resulting concept maps may indicate a relatively low potential for the development of

systems thinking (cf. Cox, Elen, & Steegen, 2019). The reason for this is the relatively small

number of relationships between different thematic areas of geography, the minimal number

of crosslinks, and the emphasis on examples of plants and animals. It is therefore questionable

whether students using these textbooks would be able to modify their mental models to more

accurate concepts or eliminate misconceptions through conceptual change (cf. Reinfried et

al., 2015).

While we aimed to highlight the selection of the key terms and their relationships in the

presentations of deserts, this study has certain limitations that need to be taken into account

in subsequent work. Firstly, there was a certain degree of subjectiveness in the creation of the

conceptual maps based on the texts, as is the case with the content analysis of any text. This

limitation of the study was eliminated by involving a higher number of assessors in the creation

of the conceptual maps and by creating a synthesised conceptual map for each of the

textbooks (see West et al., 2000; West et al., 2002). Certain ambiguous concepts and their

relationships could have been eliminated by applying this approach. However, it is necessary

to point out that the creation and subsequent analysis of the aggregated conceptual map

naturally led to the elimination of certain concepts that were less relevant to the chapter

structures and their relationships (the generalisation of reality through the tool used to study

it; Hallberg, 2013), despite their identification by some of the assessors. Although this

methodology was applied several times, this characteristic of the methodology should be

further elaborated through analyses of additional textbooks and phenomena in order to

improve its accuracy. The assignment of a specific number of points for individual categories

in the analysis (see, for example, the discussion in DʼAntoni, Zipp, & Olson, 2009) or their

major dependence on the scope of the chapter (compare Tables 1 and 3) may also be

disputed. The results cannot be generalised uncritically to other geography textbooks or other

chapters or phenomena in the analysed textbooks in view of the limited scope of the analysis

(desert biomes). However, the results provide certain insights into the creation of the structure

of the curriculum content and the potential learning processes of students. Therefore, it would

be suitable to supplement this study with further research (for example, a comparison of the

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 59

conceptual maps from the textbooks with mind maps by students, their drawings, or their test

results) to identify the relationship between the presentation of the curriculum in the textbooks

and the creation of conceptions among lower-secondary-school students more precisely

(compare, for example, with the research design in Strommen, 1995; Rey-Goyeneche &

Alexander, 2021).

6. CONCLUSION

The significance of the presentation of the curriculum in these didactic aids is crucial for

teaching-and-learning (Esteves, 2019), as well as the perception of the subject, i.e.

geography, by the wider population as a discipline focusing on factographic data (specific data

without any interpretation). The structures of geographical textbooks in the Czechia are based

on outmoded content-based approaches to education that do not encourage pupils to spot

connections between topics and do not include the relationship between society and nature.

If sufficient attention is not paid to the selection of key terms in the chapter content and their

relationships, the quality of didactic aids cannot progress significantly towards a more modern

approach; rather, the Czech textbook content will become rigid and immune to any broader

conceptual changes. Although this study was applied to Czech textbooks of geography, it is

possible to compare the content of these textbooks with those of textbooks from other

countries; furthermore, the study presents the application of a relatively innovative method of

conceptual mapping in the analysis of geography textbooks. Nevertheless, the results show

that new international trends are entering the Czech geographical education sector very

slowly.

The chapter content of geography textbooks should reflect the abilities of students more

closely, particularly their knowledge and experiences with the relevant topic (compare with

Rye, 2013). It would also be advisable to pay more attention to the relationships and

connections between individual components of the geographical environment (in particular,

the relationship between the natural conditions and culture of a region), as well as their

demonstration through suitable and varied examples or visuals (such as case studies of the

lifestyles of different people). Changing the concept behind the structuring of chapters appears

to be suitable. For example, a problem-based or system-based approach to the presentation

of the curriculum could be used (de Sousa, Hay, & Liebenberg, 2019). This could involve

progressing from traditional economic activities to modern social and economic arrangements

instead of the systematic approach, which is unfortunately applied in all the textbooks we

analysed. The application of this methodological tool in the analysis of texts by experts in

various countries worldwide would also be advisable; the presented methodological tool could

thus contribute to the networking of research in geography education.

The interpretation of the results showed that the production of textbooks has major

shortcomings that negatively influence the work of students and teachers. This is why the

quality of textbook content and the alignment of this content with the current state of

knowledge in science and modern psychodidactic findings should be a core focus. If these

principles continue to be ignored, the desired change in the effectiveness of geography

teaching in lower secondary schools and the positive perception of geography as a subject by

the wider population are not likely.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Funding: This work was supported by Grant Agency of Jan Evangelista Purkyně University

in Ústí nad Labem (No. UJEP-SGS-2020-53-004-3).

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 60

REFERENCES

Arnold, R. D., & Wade, J. P. (2015). A definition of systems thinking: A systems approach.

Procedia Computer Science, 44(2015), 669–678.

http://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2015.03.050

Bagoly-Simó, P. (2013). Still red and in war or just poor? European transformation societies

in Geography textbooks. Journal of Geography, 112(3), 108–119.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2012.693942.

Bagoly-Simó, P. (2018). Science and Geography textbooks in light of subject-specific

education. In E. Fuchs & A. Bock (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of textbook studies

(pp. 141–155). Palgrave Macmillan US.

Bagoly-Simó, P. (2019). Research on Geography textbooks. A meta-analysis of work

published in IARTEM proceedings. In J. Rodríguez, T.M.B. Garcia, & E. Bruillard (Eds.),

IARTEM 1991-2016: 25 years developing textbook and educational media re-search

(pp. 237–246). Tórculo Comunicación Gráfica.

Bock, A. (2018). Theories and methods of textbook studies. In E. Fuchs & A. Bock (Eds.), The

Palgrave handbook of textbook studies (pp. 57–70). Palgrave Macmillan US.

Cain, V.E.M. (2015). Seeing the world: Media and vision in US geography classrooms, 1890–

1930. Early Popular Visual Culture, 13(4), 276–292.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17460654.2015.1111591

Cox, M. (2018). A systems thinking approach in secondary geography education. KU Leuven.

Cox, M., Elen, J., & Steegen, A. (2019). Systems thinking in geography: can high school

students do it? International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education,

28(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2017.1386413

D’Antoni, A.V., Zipp, G.P., & Olson, V.G. (2009). Interrater reliability of the mind map

assessment rubric in a cohort of medical students. BMC Medical Education, 19(9), 1–8.

https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-9-19

de Sousa, L.O., Hay, E.A., & Liebenberg, D. (2019). Teachers' understanding of the

interconnectedness of soil and climate change when developing a systems thinking

concept map for teaching and learning. International Research in Geographical and

Environmental Education, 28(4), 324–342.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2019.1657684

Doulík, P., & Škoda, J. (2008). Diagnostika dětských pojetí a její využití v pedagogické praxi.

UJEP v Ústí nad Labem.

Dove, J.E. (1999) Theory into Practice: Immaculate misconceptions. Geographical

Association.

Dove, J. (2016). Tropical rainforests: A case study of UK, 13-year-olds’ knowledge and

understanding of these environments. International Research in Geographical and

Environmental Education, 21(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2012.639150

Driver, R. (1981). Pupil’s alternative frameworks in Science. European Journal of Science

Education, 3(1), 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/0140528810030109

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 61

Esteves, M.H. (2019). Geography teachers’ views on textbook use in portugal: A small-scale

study in challenging times. European Journal of Geography, 10(1), 85–98.

Favier, T.T., & van der Schee, J.A.(2014). The effects of geography lessons with geospatial

technologies on the development of high school students' relational thinking. Computers

& Education, 76(2014), 225–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.04.004

Fögele, J. (2016). From content to concept. Teaching glocal issues with geographical

principles. European Journal of Geography, 7(1), 6–16.

Francek, M. (2013). A compilation and review of over 500 geoscience misconceptions.

International Journal of Science Education 35(1), 31–64.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2012.736644

Freeman L.A., & Jessup L.M. (2004). The power and benefits of concept mapping: measuring

use, usefulness, ease of use, and satisfaction. International Journal of Science

Education, 26(2), 151–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069032000097361

Hallberg, L. (2013). Quality criteria and generalization of results from qualitative studies.

International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 8(20647), 1.

https://doi.org/10.3402/qhw.v8i0.20647

Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Jordan, R., Eberbach, C., & Sinha, S. (2017). Systems learning with a

conceptual representation: A quasi-experimental study. Instructional Science, 45(1),

53–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-016-9392-y

Jennings, S.A. (2006). A content comparison of six physical geography textbooks spanning a

century. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 15(1),

1–15. https://doi.org/10.2167/irgee183.0

Kidman, G., & Papadimitriou, F. (2012). Content analysis of international research in

geographical and environmental education: 18 years of academic publishing.

International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 21(1), 3–10.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2012.639152

Kinchin, I.M., Hay, D.B., & Adams, A. (2000). How a qualitative approach to concept map

analysis can be used to aid learning by illustrating patterns of conceptual development.

Educational Research, 42(1), 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/001318800363908

King, C.J.H. (2010). An analysis of misconceptions in science textbooks: Earth science in

England and Wales. International Journal of Science Education, 32(5), 565–601.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690902721681

Kučerová, S.R., Kučera, Z., & Novotná, K. (2018). Formation of a regional image through

geography textbooks: The case of northwest Bohemia. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift,

72(3), 176–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2018.1468811

Lane, R. (2008). Students’ alternative conceptions in geography. Geographical Education,

23(1), 43–52.

Lane, R., Carter, J., & Bourke, T. (2019). Concepts, conceptualization, and conceptions in

geography. Journal of Geography, 118(1), 11–20.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2018.1490804

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 62

Lee, J., & Catling, S. (2017). What do geography textbook authors in England consider when

they design content and select case studies. International Research in Geographical

and Environmental Education, 26(4), 342–356.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2016.1220125

Limón, M. (2001) On the cognitive conflict as an instructional strategy for conceptual change:

A critical appraisal. Learning and Instruction, 11(4–5), 357–380.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(00)00037-2

Lorenz, A., Roth, A., & Priese, C. (2017). The interest of Bavarian primary school pupils in

geographical topics and methods – selected results of an empirical survey. Education

3-13, 45(5), 543–557. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2016.1140801

Marada, M., et al. (2017). Koncepce geografického vzdělávání. Praha: Univerzita Karlova.

Maude, A. (2019). What might powerful geographical knowledge look like? Geography,

101(2), 70–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/00167487.2016.12093987

Maude, A. (2020). The role of geography’s concepts and powerful knowledge in a future 3

curriculum. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education,

29(3), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2020.1749771

Maude, A., & Caldis, S. (2019). Teaching higher-order thinking and powerful geographical

knowledge through the Stage 5 Biomes and Food Security unit: Higher order thinking

and powerful Geography. Geographical Education, 32(1), 30–39.

NCGE (2012). Geography for Life: National Geography Standards. NCGE.

Novak, J.D., & Gowin, D.B. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge University Press.

Novak, J.D. (1990). Concept mapping: A useful tool for science education. Journal of

Research in Science Teaching, 27(10), 937–949.

https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660271003

Okeeffe, L. (2013). A framework for textbook analysis. International Review of Contemporary

Learning Research, 2(1), 1‒13. http://dx.doi.org/10.12785/IRCLR/020101

Pine, K., Messer, D., & John, K. (2001). Children's misconceptions in primary science: A

survey of teachers' views. Research in Science & Technological Education, 19(1), 79–

96. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635140120046240

Rebich, S., & Gautier, G. (2005). Concept mapping to reveal prior knowledge and conceptual

change in a mock summit course on global climate change. Journal of Geoscience

Education, 53(4), 355–365. https://doi.org/10.5408/1089-9995-53.4.355

Reinfried, S. (2006). Conceptual change in physical geography and environmental sciences

through mental model building: The example of groundwater. International Research in

Geographical and Environmental Education, 15(1), 41–61.

https://doi.org/10.2167/irgee186.0

Reinfried, S., Aeschbacher, U., Kienzler P., & Tempelmann, S. (2015). The model of

educational reconstruction: A powerful strategy to teach for conceptual development in

physical geography: the case of water springs. International Research in Geographical

and Environmental Education, 24(3), 237–257.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2015.1034459

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 63

Rempfler, A., & Uphues, R. (2012). System competence in geography education development

of competence models, diagnosing pupils’ achievement. European Journal of

Geography, 3(1), 6–22

Rey-Goyeneche, J.A., & Alexander, P. (2021) Wolves in the Amazon? Child perceptions of a

distant natural environment in an English primary school. International Research in

Geographical and Environmental Education, 30(2), 132–147.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2020.1797099

Roberts, M. (2014) Powerful knowledge and geographical education. The Curriculum Journal,

25(2), 187–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2014.894481

Rye, S.A. (2013). Learning about distant places through the internet: Young students as global

citizens? Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift, 67(3), 148–156.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2013.803260

Schubert, J.C. (2014). Students’ preconceptions of the formation and location of deserts:

Results of a qualitative interview study with grade 7 students in Germany. RIGEO, 4(2),

102–119.

Schubert, J.C. (2015). Causes, processes and consequences of “desertification”: Results of a

qualitative study about the conceptions of 12- and 13-year-old students in Germany.

International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 24(2), 148–166.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2014.993172

Schubert, J.C., & Wrenger, K. (2016). Subject-Specific correctness of students’ conceptions

and factors of influence: Empirical findings from a quantitative study with grade 7

students in Germany regarding the formation and location of deserts. RIGEO, 6(2), 135–

159.

Sidorov, D. (2009). Visualizing the former cold war “other”: Images of Eastern Europe in world

regional geography textbooks in the United States. Journal of Educational Media,

Memory, and Society 1(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.3167/jemms.2009.010104

Smith, J.P., diSessa, A.A., & Roschelle, J. (1993). Misconceptions reconceived: A

constructivist analysis of knowledge in transition. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(2),

115–163. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls0302_1

Soyibo, K. (1995). Using concept maps to analyze textbook presentations of respiration. The

American Biology Teacher, 57(6), 344–351. https://doi.org/10.2307/4450013

Strommen, E. (1995). Lions and tigers and bears, oh my! Childrenʼs conceptions of forests

and their inhabitants. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32(7), 683–698.

https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660320704

Taylor, L. (2008). Key concepts and medium term planning. Teaching Geography, 33(2), 50–

54.

Testa, I., Leccia, E., & Puddu, E. (2014). Astronomy textbook images: Do they really help

students? Physics Education, 4(3), 332–343. https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-

9120/49/3/332

Trahorsch, P. (2022). Vizuálie v učebnicích geografie: analýza a vliv na dětská pojetí. UJEP v

Ústí nad Labem.

Trahorsch et al., 2022

European Journal of Geography - ISSN 1792-1341 64

Trahorsch, P., Bláha, J. D., & Chytrý, V. (2019). Comparative analysis of the quality of visuals

in geography textbooks for ISCED 1 and ISCED 2 levels of education. RIGEO, 9(2),

264–283. https://doi.org/10.33403/rigeo.509255

Trahorsch, P. & Trhlíková, D. (2021). Jak si žáci základních škol představují pouště? Biologie-

Chemie-Zeměpis, 30(4), 38–50. https://doi.org/10.14712/25337556.2021.4.4

Vosniadou, S. (2013). International handbook of research on conceptual change. Routledge.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. MIT Press.

Wandersee, J.H. (1990). Concept mapping and the cartography of cognition. Journal of

Research in Science Teaching, 27(10), 923–936.

https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660271002

Wehry, S., Monroe-Ossi, M., Cobb, S., & Fountain, C. (2012). Concept mapping strategies:

Content, tools and assessment for human geography. Journal of Geography, 111(3),

83–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2011.604094

West, D.C., Pomerory, J.R., Park, J., Gerstenberger, E., & Sandoval, J. (2000). Critical

thinking in graduate medical education. Journal of the American Medical Association,

284(9), 1105–1110. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.284.9.1105

West D.C., Park J.K., Pomeroy J.R., & Sandoval, J. (2002). Concept mapping assessment in

medical education: A comparison of two scoring systems. Medical Education, 36(9),

820–826. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2923.2002.01292.x

Wu, C.C., Lee, G.C., & Lai, H.K. (2004). Using concept maps to aid analysis of concept

presentation in high school computer textbooks. Education and Information

Technologies, 9(2), 185-197. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EAIT.0000027930.09631.a5

Young, M. (2008) From constructivism to realism in the sociology of the curriculum. Review of

Research in Education, 32(1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X07308969